History of Chemical Engineering - American Chemical Society

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18 Three Decades of Canadian Nuclear Chemical Engineering H. K. RAE

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Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, Chalk River, Ontario, KOJ 1JO Canada Major contributions to uranium refining, heavy-water production, reactor coolant technology for heavy water, boiling-water and organic-cooled power reactors, waste immobilization, and irradi­ ated fuel processing are described. Included is a brief outline of the evolution of the highly successful Canadian nuclear power pro­ gram based on natural-uranium-fueled, heavy-water-moderated reactors. The most important chemical engineering achievement in the nuclear field in Canada was the establishment of an industrial capability to produce heavy water. Two other key contributions were (a) the control of the build-up of radiationfieldscaused by the activation of corrosion products and their transport by the coolant, and (b) pioneering work on the immobilization of fission products in glass which included a field test now in its 20th year.

he Canadian nuclear power program has brought the natural-uranium-fueled, heavy-water-moderated reactor design to the stage of a demonstrated, commercially competitive power source. This design has the acronym CANDU—CANada Deuterium Uranium. A brief outline of the evolution of this reactor concept provides useful background to the discussion of the history of nuclear chemical engineering in Canada. The choice of heavy-water moderation for Canadian nuclear power reactors was influenced strongly by the wartime decision (1) that an Anglo-Canadian team would build a heavy-water reactor in Canada to make plutonium. This became the NRX experimental reactor at the Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories (CRNL) which is now in its 32nd year of operation. This project paralleled the plutonium-production route in graphite reactors used at Hanford by the United States Manhattan Dis­ trict Project. Thus Canada acquired early operating experience with heavy-water reactors and a sound appreciation of the inherent advantages of this unique moderator (2). Its extremely low neutron capture cross section permits a sufficiently high thermal power density to be achieved A

0-8412-0512-4/80/33-190-313$05.25/l © 1980 American Chemical Society

Furter; History of Chemical Engineering Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.

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with natural uranium fuel for an economically viable system. In con­ trast, although ordinary water has even better moderating properties permitting high power density, its relatively high neutron capture cross section means that the fissile uranium-235 content of the fuel must be enriched to about four times the natural value. Thus the light-water reactor design commercially developed in the United States and widely adopted elsewhere requires uranium isotope enrichment while the C A N D U design requires hydrogen isotope separation. Another early decision which shaped future events was taken in 1950—to build the N R U reactor at C R N L . This large experimental reactor (3) developed confidence in our ability to minimize leakage in complex heavy-water coolant circuits and pioneered the technology of changing fuel at full reactor power. N R U provided large irradiation test facilities which remain unique in the world. Full-scale fuel channels and fuel bundles are studied at power reactor conditions in separate, indi­ vidually controlled coolant circuits (loops). Similar smaller-scale experi­ ments are done i n the N R X reactor. This work provided the main focus for the reactor research and development program. Such experiments were the basis of the evolutionary design of two prototype reactors (4)— N P D at 22 M W which started up in 1962 and Douglas Point at 208 M W which started up in 1967. This experience provided a firm foundation for Canada's first commercial nuclear power project—the Pickering Generat­ ing Station consisting of four reactors with a total capacity of 2056 M W , designed by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited and built and operated by Ontario Hydro. These four reactors came into service between 1971 and 1973 and have achieved an outstanding record of high-capacity factor ever since (5). Ontario Hydro has embarked upon a major nuclear power pro­ gram and now has 5 G W in service with a further 9 G W under construc­ tion (5). Quebec and New Brunswick have initiated C A N D U nuclear power programs, and outside Canada units are in operation or under construction i n four countries for a total committed capacity of 3 GWJ6) in addition to Ontario's 14 G W . e

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The strategy adopted to develop nuclear power in Canada was set by 1955. Simplicity and early viability were emphasized together with the ability to manufacture the majority of the equipment and components in Canada. The simplest fueling arrangement was selected—irradiation of natural uranium followed by interim storage of the irradiated fuel. Re­ covery and recycle of plutonium or the use of thorium was postponed for future development. A low fueling rate and an attractive fueling cost were estimated to be possible without recycle (7), and this has proved to be the case (5). O u r uranium supply was large. It was clear that Canada would take several decades to reach a nuclear industry large enough to support the minimum economic size of a plutonium recovery plant (8). A n d finally, interim storage of the irradiated fuel appeared to be quite feasible.

Furter; History of Chemical Engineering Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.

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Thus, for nearly two decades from 1955, the nuclear power program in Canada could concentrate virtually completely on the supply of nuclear materials and on reactor development.

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Chemical Engineering in the CANDU Program K e y contributions to the Canadian nuclear power program i n the field of chemical engineering have occurred in three major areas, as indicated in Figure 1. These are the production of nuclear materials, the improvement of reactor operation, and the nuclear fuel cycle. I have selected nine topics within these areas to highlight in this historical review. Figure 1 shows the periods during the past three decades of major chemical engineering activity on each topic. I have distinguished be­ tween periods of research and development activity and those of com­ mercial operation, and as one would expect, there is considerable overlap between these two types of activity. Each period of commercial operation of course must be preceded by design and construction; although not explicidy included in Figure 1, these activities also have important chem­ ical engineering components. There are three essential nuclear materials for the C A N D U reactor: uranium, heavy water, and zirconium. The latter material has involved litde chemical engineering activity in Canada and will not be considered further i n this review. Uranium milling and refining has become an important industry in Canada, mainly dependent on the export market. At present, domestic requirements for uranium are about 20% of Canada's total refining capa­ bility. This industry began with small-scale, wartime operations to pro­ vide fuel for the world's first reactors. Then it expanded rapidly to meet the needs of large military programs in Great Britain and the United States (9). This was followed by a period of much lower demand until com­ mercial nuclear power became established; now we are at the beginning of a new period of expansion (10). The three major products are U O , U 0 , and U F . Large-scale production of high purity U 0 began in the mid1950's (11), mainly for export. Then capability for ceramic-grade U O was added i n the early 1960's, mainly for the C A N D U program (12). Finally, facilities for conversion of U 0 to U F were added by 1970 (13) to better serve the export market by providing feed for the toll enrichment of customer's uranium. Heavy-water production in Canada began on a small scale in a plant operated by Cominco for the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( U S A E C ) in 1944 (14) and continued until 1956. This was also a period of initial research into heavy-water processes at C R N L (15). By the mid1950's the U S A E C and the Ε. I. Dupont de Nemours and Company had put into operation two large, heavy-water plants using the GS process. The a

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Furter; History of Chemical Engineering Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.

Furter; History of Chemical Engineering Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.

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Figure 1. Major areas of Canadian nuclear chemical engineering

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United States-Canada agreement on the exchange of atomic energy i n ­ formation provided for Canadian access to this technology when it was needed, and meanwhile for the purchase by Canada of the heavy water for the first C A N D U reactors. Therefore, development work was suspended until Canada began to put its own heavy-water production capacity in place in the late 1960's (16). There are now four large plants in operation in Canada and two others being constructed, representing a total investment of $1,500,000,000 over the past 15 years. A wide range of chemical engineering contributions has been involved. Research and development has been divided about equally between improving plant performance and advancing alternative processes. A n important area where improved reactor-system design and opera­ tion have been achieved is in the control of all aspects of coolant chem­ istry. The major development here has been the identification of the factors controlling movement of corrosion products by the coolant into the reactor core where they are activated, and the subsequent deposition of these radioactive species on out-reactor components causing radiation fields that may interfere with maintenance work during shutdowns. In com­ mercial C A N D U reactors the fields from such long-lived radioactivity have been controlled successfully to low values (17). The basic concept of the C A N D U reactor with separate moderator and heat-transport (coolant) systems offers the opportunity to substitute another coolant for pressurized heavy water without extensive design changes (18). Two alternative coolants have been investigated through to the stage of operating prototype reactors. These are boding light water (BLW) and an organic fluid. Both offer higher overall thermal efficiency, and the organic fluid also offers very low radioactivity in the coolant circuit. Control of coolant chemistry and corrosion-product transport in both cases has involved extensive chemical engineering research and development. The various parts of the nuclear fuel cycle were studied extensively in the early days of the nuclear program to explore the technical feasi­ bility of the various options. Processes to recover fissile plutonium or uranium-233 from irradiated uranium or thorium were investigated (19). This work was brought to a close about 1956 after the decision to adopt simple natural uranium fueling for C A N D U reactors. In this period it was recognized that the fission product wastes eventually would need to be immobilized and isolated from man's environment. C R N L pioneered the incorporation of fission products into glass in the late 1950's, taking the process to the stage of demonstrating technical feasibility (20). Further work was postponed until the C A N D U program had grown suf­ ficiently so that long-term waste-disposal needs could be better forecast. W e now can see the need to have a demonstrated technology in place early i n the next century, and a large research, development, and demon­ stration program (21) has been initiated at the Whiteshell Nuclear

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HISTORY O F C H E M I C A L ENGINEERING

Research Establishment ( W N R E ) . Wastes arising from reactor opera­ tion, which contain less than 1% of the total radioactivity generated but are much larger i n volume than the fission product wastes, must be concentrated and immobilized for disposal. Development of this tech­ nology began i n the mid-1970's and will be demonstrated in a waste treatment center at C R N L (22). Coincident with these new activities in waste disposal is a renewed interest in recycling fissile material recovered from spent fuel, and i n particular, i n the thorium fuel cycle (23). Thus new work in processing irradiated fuel and on the remote fabrication of recyle fuel began i n the early 1970's.

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Uranium

Refining

The Canadian uranium industry began in 1942 and rapidly grew during the 1950's to reach a peak production of 12 G g U / a . Production had declined to about 3.5 G g U / a by 1970 as military requirements were fulfilled; many of the early milling plants had been dismantled (9). By 1978 the industry had expanded again and production was 6.4 G g of uranium i n the form of U O . Rapid growth to over 12 Gg/a is forecast for the mid-1980's (10). The first Canadian plant for leaching of uranium ore commenced operation at Port Radium, Northwest Territories in 1952 by Eldorado M i n i n g and Refining, Limited—later Eldorado Nuclear Limited. This used a flowsheet pioneered by the Radioactivity Division of the Mines Branch, Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources, Ottawa (24). Acid leaching was followed by reduction and precipitation of the uranium. F o l ­ lowing early work by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Eldorado piloted a solvent-extraction process using a tertiary amine for the uranium recovery and purification step. A plant using mixer-settlers was built at Port Radium and commenced operation in 1958 (25). Virtually all of the Canadian mills have used a variant of the acidleaching process developed by the Mines Branch to extract uranium from the ore, and all but Port Radium have followed this by ion-exchange purification of the leach solution with strong-base resins. The uranium usually is precipitated with ammonia to produce ammonium diuranate (yellow cake). Physical methods of beneficiation have proved to be unattractive with Canadian ores. Development work has indicated that acid leaching at high oxygen pressure may be attractive (26). In situ leaching with bac­ terial oxidation was developed also by the Mines Branch (27), and a modification of this process is being tried now on a large scale by Agnew Lake Mines Limited (28). A solvent-in-pulp system using a tertiary amine in a pulse-column contactor may be more attractive than ion exchange for uranium recovery, and is a significant improvement over the earlier mixer-setder arrange­ ment (29). 3

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The only Canadian uranium refinery is operated at Port Hope, Ontario by Eldorado. Tonnage quantities of oxide ( U O ) were produced first in 1942 from ore concentrates. A solvent-extraction pilot plant was operated in 1950 and 1951 to investigate methylisobutylketone (hexone) and then tributylphosphate as extractants for uranium to obtain a high-purity prod­ uct. The present refinery was designed and built by the Catalytic Con­ struction Company in 1955 (11). Yellow cake is digested in nitric acid, the resultant slurry extracted with tributylphosphate dissolved in kerosene, and the uranium, after purification, transferred back to water. This solution is decomposed thermally to U 0 . Capacity is about 5 G g U / a . Initial development of the process to produce ceramic-grade uranium dioxide from uranyl nitrate solution was done by A E C L (30) and a small plant was set up by Eldorado i n 1958 (12). This has been expanded now to a capacity of about 1 Gg/a. Facilities have been constructed also to prepare enriched ceramic oxide (1 to 3% U-235) from enriched U F . In the late 1960's Eldorado decided to install a plant to convert U 0 to U F so that they could provide their uranium customers outside of Canada with a product ready to feed to an enrichment plant. The K e r r - M c G e e process was adapted to their needs and operation at a capacity of 2 G g U / a began i n 1971 (13). This plant has been expanded now to 5 G g U / a . 3

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Heavy-Water Production As part of the Manhattan District Project during W o r l d War II, a small plant to produce heavy water (~ 6 Mg/a) was built by Standard O i l Development C o . at Trail, B . C . and was operated by Cominco from 1944 to 1956 (14). It was based on steam-hydrogen catalytic exchange plus steam—water equilibration coupled to water electrolysis. However, by­ product heavy water from this process is economical only i f the electro­ lysis cost is borne by the hydrogen product, which at Trail was used for ammonia production. In any case, the small scale of operation imposed by electrolytic capacity and the large exchange tower volume have made this production method economically unattractive. There have been many assessments and comparisons of heavy-water processes in Canada during the past three decades (15, 31, 32, 33). Despite the wide range of alternatives studied, none that can offer u n ­ limited production are able to compete with the GS process—deuterium exchange between water and hydrogen sulfide—which was chosen by the U S A E C for their large-scale production needs nearly 30 years ago (34). W h e n the scope of this commitment became known in the m i d 1950's, further heavy-water process development in Canada was halted. Initial Canadian requirements for heavy water were purchased from the U S A E C , and investment in a heavy-water industry was postponed until demand was large enough to provide an economic scale of operation.

Furter; History of Chemical Engineering Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.

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HISTORY O F C H E M I C A L ENGINEERING

One interesting development during the early period was a parallel plate, wetted-wall packing for water distillation (35). Although not pur­ sued beyond the pilot scale by A E C L , the same principle was developed successfully into a more practical design by Sulzer Bros, in Switzerland (36). Their packing is used at many heavy-water plants for the final stage of heavy-water production which uses water distillation from about 15% D 0 to reactor grade, 99.8% D 0 . The initial plan to establish heavy-water production in Canada was for A E C L , a crown corporation, to contract with industry for a long-term supply. The first two plants were built on this basis, one for Deuterium of Canada L t d . at Glace Bay, N . S . and the other for Canadian General Electric ( C G E ) at Port Hawkesbury, N . S . Subsequently these plants were purchased by A E C L . The third plant was built for A E C L at the Bruce Nuclear Power Development site, Tiverton, Ontario. It was sold to Ontario H y d r o (OH) soon after start-up and two more plants are being built for them at the same site. A sixth plant, LaPrade, is being built for A E C L near Gentilly, Quebec. Table I fists these plants and their de­ signer-constructors, capacities, and start-up dates. Completion and start­ up of Bruce D and LaPrade have been postponed because of a forecast surplus of heavy water resulting from a decline in the rate of rise in demand for electricity.

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The ill-starred original Glace Bay plant was begun in 1964. Finan­ cial problems, labor and management difficulties, escalating costs, and a variety of technical problems plagued the project. Attempts to com­ mission the plant were abandoned in 1969. Responsibility for the plant was transferred to A E C L and late in 1970 a contract was awarded to Canaton M H G Heavy Water Limited ( C M H G ) for rehabilitation. A new flowsheet was adopted using the existing tower shells, but with new internals. This flowsheet, developed by V . R. Thayer (37), optimized production from the existing tower volume. A l l of the other equipment and piping were dismantled and, to the extent possible, modified for reuse. The highlights of this challenging project, successfully completed in 1975, are reported by L . Blake (38). Meanwhile the first two Lummus-designed plants had begun opera­ tion. They more closely followed the technology established by Ε. I. Dupont de Nemours and Company for the U S A E C at Dana and Savannah River. One major difference from the U S A E C plants was to scale-up tower volume by a factor of 20, to a 8.6-m diameter and a 90-m height containing 130 sieve trays. Operating at 2 M P a pressure, these are among the world's largest high-pressure chemical process vessels. The 800 M g / a Bruce A plant has six such towers operating in parallel to extract 29 g of heavy water/sec from a feedwater flow of 1 Mg/sec—a yield of 1 ounce of product from a ton of feed! The very large size of these plants, and the large quantities of hydrogen sulfide at high pressure (2 MPa) involved, has made thendesign and operation a major challenge.

Furter; History of Chemical Engineering Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.

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Table I. Canadian Heavy-Water Production Plants

Phnt

OwnerOperator

DesignerConstructor

Port Hawkesbury Bruce A Glace Bay Bruce Β Bruce D LaPrade

AECL OH AECL OH OH AECL

LCCL LCCL CMHG LCCL LCCL CMHG

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a

b

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Start—up

400 800 400 800 800 800

1970 1973 1976 1979

? L C C L — L u m m u s Company of Canada Limited. CMHG—Canatom M H G Heavy Water Limited. Commitment of the Bruce C plant was canceled. b

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G . D . Davidson (39) describes the performance of the Bruce plant with regard to safety, environmental impact, reliability, and manpower development. Total production to the end of 1978 is 3.7 G g for an overall capacity factor of 0.77. The total Canadian output to this date is 5.5 G g , worth about one billion dollars. The construction of three plants at the Bruce site has permitted some evolutionary improvements in design, but of limited extent because of the strong desire for standardization of operations and maintenance. These are described by R. I. Petrie (40). Perhaps the most important one is an extensive system for hydrogen sulfide recovery from the flare and vent headers, drains, tanks, and strippers which significantly will reduce re­ leases of hydrogen sulfide or the flaring of it to sulfur dioxide. Sieve tray performance, both as to flow and mass-transfer efficiency is crucial to successful plant performance, and extraction is unusually sensi­ tive to small changes in the gas-to-liquid flow ratio. Thus, even incipient flooding or dumping of trays can cause large losses in production. Early plant operation was limited in throughput by foaming which caused un­ stable tray operation. This, problem was resolved by the addition of con­ ventional antifoamers to the feedwater and by tray modification to reduce froth height. Thus, stable operation at high flow and design extraction were achieved (39). Surface chemistry studies at W N R E (41) showed that multilayer adsorption of hydrogen sulfide onto the water surface at high pressure caused the system to be inherently foamy at process conditions. Some trace impurities in the water markedly enhanced this foaminess. Understanding derived from this basic work at W N R E led to the selection of better antifoamers; curiously, what is currently the best one is a foamer at normal atmospheric conditions and only acquires its antifoam charac­ teristics when adsorption of hydrogen sulfide on the water becomes sig­ nificant (i.e. above 1.5 M P a pressure). W h i l e foaminess had a large effect on tray hydraulics, its deleterious effects were soon successfully controlled. A more important limitation has been low tray efficiency, lower than the design value derived from U . S . Furter; History of Chemical Engineering Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1980.

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plant experience. In retrospect, it is clear that the degree of uncertainty in these early plant measurements had been underestimated. A n exten­ sive program of basic studies, pilot-plant experiments, and measurements at Port Hawkesbury, Bruce, and Glace Bay, including direct in-tower measurements of froth height and froth density by gamma scanning (42) and sophisticated determination of tray efficiency, has brought us to the stage of a detailed mathematical model of tray performance (43). As a result, tray modifications at each of the plants has produced significant increases in production and further potential for improvement has been identified. Another important advance in heavy-water plant process engineering has been the development at C R N L of detailed iterative computer simula­ tions of heat and material balances for each plant flowsheet (44). These are unusually complex because of the large number of individual trays and the predominance of many interacting recycle streams: in parts of the plant the recycle flow of deuterium can be more than 1000 times the product flow. Fine-tuning of process parameters, more precise process control, and small improvements in design of the later plants have more than repaid the effort required to develop these programs. Such benefits have been accompanied by an increasing depth of understanding of process subtleties. Exploiting this insight, A . I. Miller and G . Pauluis (45) have developed a new process flowsheet which offers for the next generation of GS plants 5% more extraction for the same feed rate and plant investment as current designs. Heavy-water production is highly energy intensive—30 GJ/kg D 0 , or i n more familiar terms, 5 bbl of oil per kilogram. A l l of the Canadian plants have their steam supply coupled with large electric power generat­ ing plants for good overall thermal efficiency. While Glace Bay and Port Hawkesbury use steam from back-pressure turbines at fossil-fired power stations, Bruce is the world's largest example of the use of nuclear steam for chemical process heat (40). The major Canadian effort to develop an alternative heavy-water process has concentrated on amine-hydrogen exchange. This process extracts deuterium from a large hydrogen stream such as ammonia syn­ thesis gas—a 1000 Mg/day ammonia plant could produce 70 M g D 0 / a . Development has reached the stage where a demonstration plant could be built, attached to an ammonia plant, and would be economically attractive (46). Although production from each such plant is limited, the total world potential for deuterium recovery from hydrogen is very large. Another approach to exploiting this process as a major source of heavy water is to link it to a water feed. This can be done best by hightemperature water—hydrogen exchange (47). However, such a complex arrangement may be too expensive. The amine-hydrogen work at C R N L showed the superiority of methylamine as the exchange medium over ammonia or other amines, and 2

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developed an effective homogeneous catalyst for the process—potassiumlithium methylamide dissolved in the methylamine (48). The rate of exchange between the hydrogen gas and the liquid amine is limited both by the kinetics of the exchange reaction and the low solubility of hydrogen. In comparison with the GS process, the mass-transfer co­ efficient for the methylamine-hydrogen system is an order of magnitude lower (33). Thus, to achieve a reasonable tray efficiency, a special contactor is required having a long gas-phase residence time per tray and an increased interfacial area. At C R N L a deep sieve tray design was developed having an overflow weir of the order of a meter high and with the froth volume filled by knitted mesh packing to reduce bubble co­ alescence (49). Tray efficiency in pilot-scale tests was an order of magni­ tude higher than for a simple sieve tray. Sulzer Bros, had developed an ejector contactor for the similar ammonia-hydrogen process. This achieves an even higher tray efficiency at the expense of a large energy input and complex tower internals. However, since the process operates at high pressure (7 MPa), the resultant smaller tower is an important advantage. A combination of this Sulzer technology and the A E C L catalyst technology has provided the attractive plant design referred to above (46). D u r i n g the past decade chemists and chemical engineers at C R N L have developed a new catalyst for water-hydrogen exchange (50). Relative to the Trail process arrangement, this new catalyst reduces the exchange tower volume by an order of magnitude. This important de­ velopment has applications in heavy-water reconcentration (upgrading) and i n tritium recovery from light or heavy water, as well as for by­ product heavy-water production. These other applications will be dis­ cussed later. The heavy-water production process based on this new catalyst is known as combined electrolysis and catalytic exchange (CECE). Coolant Technology The water chemistry of C A N D U reactors embraces control of cor­ rosion and corrosion-product transport in the coolant system, control of radiolytic decomposition of the moderator (51) and control of the con­ centration of soluble neutron absorbers used to adjust reactivity; and control of boiler-water chemistry to minimize tube corrosion (52). The major chemical engineering effort has dealt with coolant technology and I w i l l confine this review to that aspect of water chemistry. The important chemical processes which can occur in the coolant are radiolytic decomposition to produce oxygen, corrosion of the system materials, dissolution of the metal oxides so formed, deposition of cor­ rosion products on the system surfaces, and transport of radioactive nuclides generated within deposits on the fuel sheaths. The major sys-

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tern materials are carbon steel, zirconium alloys, and various nickelcontaining alloys for the boiler tubes. Early work (53) in in-reactor fuel test loops showed that radiolytic oxygen can be suppressed by maintaining 5 to 10 c m D / k g D 0 dis­ solved i n the coolant and that operation at p H 10 with lithium hydroxide minimizes deposition of magnetite ( F e 0 ) particles on the fuel sheath surfaces. These conditions minimize corrosion and correspond to a mini­ m u m solubility of magnetite. W i t h these coolant conditions the fuel surface remains clean and heat transfer is unimpeded—they are the key to the successful use of carbon steel piping, components, and fittings for the C A N D U coolant circuit. A simple and effective chemistry control and coolant purification circuit was developed (54). Despite stringent control of coolant chemistry and very low con­ centrations of corrosion products i n the coolant (~ 10" g F e / g D 0 ) , there is a large potential for transport because of the huge flow of coolant (~ 10 kg/sec) and substantial (50 K) temperature difference from 530 to 580 K . E v e n a few magnetite particles depositing on the fuel surface (0.1 g F e / m ) can yield significant radioactivity—mainly cobalt-60 from the cobalt-59 impurities i n the system. Dissolution in-core and precipitation or exchange out-core provide a means to transfer this radioactivity to out-core components. These fields i n normally inaccessible areas i m ­ pede maintenance and cause external radiation exposures to station staff—typically 0.3 r e m / M W . a (17), or about 600 rem/a for the 2000M W Pickering station. The importance of corrosion product mass transfer was realized first i n the early operation of N R U . Here the solubility of the oxide formed on the aluminum fuel sheathing led to the production of a colloidal alumina floe i n the heavy water. The mechanism for its formation, means to control it, and the role it played in transporting uranium and fission products released from failed fuel were studied (55, 56). Extensive studies (57, 58, 59) defined the controlling processes for activity transport i n the power reactors. These are oxide solubility, particle deposition, diffusion through oxide films, and rates of crystal­ lization. Detailed models for activity production in-core and surface activation out-core have been developed (60) that successfully predict the growth of corrosion product fields i n each of the C A N D U reactors. Activity transport effects can be minimized by selecting materials with a low cobalt content and by rigid adherence to chemical specifica­ tions for the coolant. Because of the important role of corrosion product particles i n this transport, filtration has been studied extensively as a means of reducing the rate of growth of radiation fields. High flows are needed to be effective and therefore the filters must operate at full coolant temperature. Two types of filter which have proved successful i n pilot tests at the N P D reactor are a deep bed of graphite particles and a bed of steel balls in an electromagnetic field (61). 3

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A n important chemical technique to reduce fields due to corrosion products is the C A N - D E C O N decontamination process developed jointly by C R N L and W N R E (62). This uses a dilute reagent mixture which can be added to heavy water without introducing any ordinary water. By circulation through cation exchange resin the metallic ions are removed and the reagent is regenerated. The radioactivity is retained on the resin for which handling and disposal techniques are already available. The reagent can be removed from the circuit by mixed-bed ion exchange. A full-scale decontamination of the Douglas Point reactor was done in 1975 (63) reducing fields associated with carbon steel piping by a factor of six. This large program on activity transport, involving both A E C L and Ontario H y d r o , began in response to high radiation fields at Douglas Point due to inadequate chemical control during its early operation. Through close collaboration among developers, designers, and operators, fields have been reduced substantially at Douglas Point, kept lower at Pickering, and even lower at Bruce. Heavy-Water Management The success of the C A N D U reactor depends on maintaining heavywater losses at a low level. Experience (64) at Pickering and Bruce confirms that losses can be kept to less than 1% of the total inventory per year. Elaborate recovery systems are provided to deal with heavy-water leakage. Most important has been the development of large reliable and efficient molecular sieve drying systems to recover heavy-water vapor from the air i n various parts of the reactor building (65). The recovered water can range from near reactor grade down to a few percent heavy water since it generally becomes mixed to some degree with ordinary water. Reconcentration is done at each large power station by water distillation (36). A large central reconcentration plant which uses water electrolysis is operated at C R N L (66). The C E C E process mentioned earlier may be a more attractive reconcentra­ tion method; a pilot plant to investigate this recently began operation. The neutron irradiation of heavy water produces tritium in the form of T D O . After many years of reactor operation the T D O concentration in the moderator can approach 50 ppm (70 Ci/kg). Although tritium produces only a very low-energy beta particle during radioactive decay, ingestion by man w i l l give an internal radiation dose. Therefore reactor operators and maintainers must avoid prolonged contact with tritiated heavy-water vapor or liquid. Total internal dose due to tritium at Pickering has been about 0.2 r e m / M W . a . Further improvements in heavy-water containment can reduce this dose. A n alternative approach is to separate the tritium from the heavy water to limit its accumulation to a few parts per million. The development of this technology by C R N L e

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and O H has begun. The most practical separation method is cryogenic distillation of liquid deuterium. This must be preceded by a process to transfer the deuterium from the heavy water to deuterium gas. The hydrogen-water catalyst mentioned above (50) offers one convenient method to do this; the C E C E process is an alternative which also would preconcentrate the tritium in the deuterium feed to the distillation unit.

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Alternative

Coolants

In the boiling light-water-cooled C A N D U it was decided to use carbon steel as the main out-core material in the coolant circuit. Thus, high p H and low-oxygen conditions are necessary. Neither lithium hydroxide nor hydrogen are suitable additives because of the possibility of caustic attack on the fuel sheaths during evaporation and because of volatility of hydrogen during boiling. Ammonia can serve both purposes since it is alkaline and its radiolysis products, nitrogen and hydrogen, suppress oxygen formation. Extensive studies (67) in loops in N R X and N R U , confirmed by operation of the Gentilly-1 prototype reactor (68), defined conditions for good chemical control and the minimum ammonia concentration necessary to avoid forming oxides of nitrogen. Heavy fuel deposits were expected in boiling systems, and therefore the initial studies of deposition and activity transport for power reactors concentrated on the C A N D U - B L W concept until the fields at Douglas Point became a concern. The deposit thickness was proportional to iron concentration i n the coolant and to the square of the heat flux (69); deposition was reversible and quickly reached a steady value set by the local conditions. The corrosion products initially deposit by hydrodynamic and electrostatic effects; then boiling accelerates deposition by drawing water and its contained iron into the deposit to replace the steam that leaves. Local alkalinity gradients within the deposit determine whether iron crystallizes to cement the deposit or dissolves to weaken it, and erosion processes then define the equilibrium thickness (70). This model works well i n explaining deposition under boiling conditions. The organic-cooled C A N D U concept was proposed by M c N e l l y of C G E i n 1958 (71). This began an extensive investigation of coolant properties, decomposition, control of deposition, and many other aspects of coolant chemistry. A n organic-cooled, heavy-water-moderated research reactor, W R - 1 , began operation at W N R E in 1965. It has demonstrated reliable operation with coolant oudet temperatures of up to 675 K . Low corrosion and a low potential for activity transport result in very low radiation fields around the piping. The coolant finally selected is a partially hydrogenated mixture of terphenyls which is liquid down to 273 K . This advantage outweighs the somewhat higher radiolytic decomposition rate than that of pure terphenyl (72). Radiolytic and pyrolytic decomposition lead to a coolant

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containing a whole spectrum of compounds from hydrogen and methane through to high-boiling polymers. The composition can be controlled and optimized by degassing to remove gases and volatiles, and by vacuum distillation to separate coolant and high boilers (54). A major problem with the C A N D U - O C R concept was fouling of heat-transfer surfaces by deposits of organic material with a low thermal conductivity. Conditions to minimize fouling were identified: control of oxygen and chlorine content of the coolant, purification by filtration and adsorption on Attapulgus clay to remove particles, and continuous moni­ toring of fouling potential. Both oxygen and chlorine promote fouling; the latter is particularly undesirable since it complexes iron and causes its transport (73). Zirconium alloys are used for pressure tubes and fuel sheathing in W R - 1 . Coolant chemistry control is essential for their long-term life. Chlorine enhances hydriding of zirconium in hot organic coolant and its concentration must be controlled for this reason, as well as to reduce fouling. Most important to minimize hydriding, the oxide film on the zirconium must be kept i n good repair by maintaining a water concentra­ tion i n the coolant of about 200 ppm. A l l of the aspects of organic coolant technology—decomposition, purification, physical properties, fouling, heat transfer, materials per­ formance, and flammability—were summarized in 1975 (74). Irradiated

Fuel Processing

F u e l processing to recover plutonium was an important activity from the earliest days of the atomic energy program. A small pilot plant was built at C R N L i n parallel with the construction of N R X . It operated from 1949 to 1953 to extract plutonium from dissolved fuel with triethylene glycol dichloride i n a batch process. Ammonium nitrate was the salting-out agent (75). Subsequently, the waste solution from this operation was treated with tributylphosphate (TBP) to remove uranium and residual plutonium, and the ammonium nitrate decomposed before the waste was stored as a concentrated fission product solution. D u r i n g this period of the early 1950's several other aqueous pro­ cessing methods were developed to the pilot-plant stage at C R N L and pyrometallurgical processes were investigated on a laboratory scale. A n i o n exchange was investigated for application as a small-scale, primary extraction process to recover plutonium directly from dissolved irradiated uranium in 82V H N 0 . A 50-kg U/day pilot plant was operated (76). E v e n with two cycles of ion exchange the fission product activity with the plutonium was undesirably high. Resin stability is another potential problem which was not resolved fully. The standard T B P (or Purex) process was investigated also and small pilot units were operated. Both packed columns and mixer-settlers 3

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were investigated for the solvent extraction steps. A n innovative design of mixer-settler in which mixing and pumping was done with air streams was developed (77). It offers the advantages of simplicity and lowenergy input. Application of the T B P process to thorium processing was investigated also—the Thorex process. Pyrometallurgical processes investigated include slagging of molten irradiated uranium, plutonium extraction by silver, plutonium volatiliza­ tion, and fused-salt extraction (78). Interest in these approaches ended with the selection of uranium dioxide as the C A N D U fuel. A l l of this fuel processing work was terminated in 1956 with the realization that plutonium recycle would not be needed in Canada for at least several decades. As explained earlier, the once-through natural uranium dioxide fueling scheme gave attractive fueling costs. Studies of recycle costs (8) showed that a large scale was essential for economic operation, and even at large scale the benefits would likely be small if the fuel burn-up forecast for the once-through case was achieved. The situa­ tion 20 years later is still that the economics of plutonium recycle are marginal (79). Starting in 1970 one further processing variant has been investigated— the extraction of plutonium by tricaprylamine dissolved in diethylbenzene (19). Since the irradiated uranium from C A N D U reactors has a very low residual uranium-235 content, there is little incentive to recover it. The amine process offers the advantages of small size and a simple, one-cycle arrangement to give the desired decontamination. A bench-scale pilot unit has demonstrated satisfactory performance of the flowsheet, and it is the first time amine has been used to extract plutonium from dissolved irradiated fuel. Interest now is centered on the thorium cycle (23) and laboratory studies have continued to investigate both an adaptation of the Thorex process to C A N D U fuel and the application of the amine process to recovering uranium-233 from irradiated thorium. The program to de­ velop and fully demonstrate the thorium fuel cycle has been outlined, and would require about 25 years to complete. However, the current re­ search level w i l l not be expanded until a decision can be taken by the Canadian Government when the information from the current Interna­ tional Nuclear F u e l Cycle Evaluation has been assessed. Waste

Immobilization

In parallel with the studies of processes for recovering fissile material from irradiated fuel in the early 1950's at C R N L , work began on the treatment of the fission product wastes. It was recognized that a safe and permanent method of disposal would be needed once the nuclear power industry became very large. Immobilization of the fission pro­ ducts i n a stable and very insoluble glass was chosen as the best approach.

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In 1955 White and Lahaie (80) showed that the concentrated acidic waste solution could be incorporated into a glass formed by calcining and melting a mixture of the solution, lime and nepheline syenite. The latter is a silicate rock mined i n Ontario and used by the glass and ceramics industry. Development proceeded to the stage of a small batchwise pilot-scale demonstration of process feasibility (20). This unit produced glass hemispheres weighing about 2 kg and containing up to 100 C i of 6-year-old fission products. Fission product volatility, es­ pecially of ruthenium and caesium, during decomposition of the nitrate salts and melting of the glass, required the development of adsorbers and an efficient off-gas treatment system. The leaching rate of glass samples immersed in water in laboratory tests dropped rapidly in the first month and then tended to level out or decrease more slowly. Rates less than 10" g glass/cm · day were achieved for many glass compositions. A disposal experiment was initiated in which 25 hemispheres of glass, each containing 12 C i of 6-year-old mixed fission products, were placed i n the ground below the water table in 1958. After 1 year no activity could be detected in ground water samples 3 m downstream of the mid-plane of the burial. In 1960 a second experiment was initiated with 25 hemispheres of glass each containing about 40 C i of the same mixed fission products (81 ). This glass was made less resistant to leach­ ing by the addition of metal oxides so that the interaction of the glass with ground water could be monitored more readily. O v e r the first 8 years the leaching rate continually decreased from 4 Χ 10" to 5 Χ 1 0 g/cm . day (82). The integrated release over a period of 17 years has been about one part in 10 of the radioactivity initially i n the glass. None of this released activity has moved more than 50 m from the hemispheres because it has been adsorbed on the soil. Thus, the released activity has migrated by repeated adsorption-desorption along the path of the ground water which has been moving at the rate of about 70 m per year. In 1978 one hemisphere from each of the experiments was retrieved and found to be in excellent condition. This experiment provides considerable confidence in the concept of waste immobilization in glass as one step toward isolating the long-lived radioactive by-products of nuclear power from man's environment. O f course, the immobilized material would not be placed deliberately in shallow ground water for permanent disposal. The consensus today is for deep underground disposal in a stable geological formation (21). In the past few years work has resumed on the development of the process for immobilization of wastes in glass to adapt it to the types of wastes now anticipated (83). Since it is not certain that Canadian i r ­ radiated fuel w i l l be processed to recover plutonium, this program also is 8

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assessing methods for immobilization of the spent fuel for final disposal (21). Although the irradiated fuel contains over 99% of the radioactivity produced during reactor operation, the other wastes are important be­ cause of their large volume. These include ion-exchange resins, filters, combustible materials, and liquids. Pilot-plant studies (22) began several years ago of reverse osmosis, evaporation, and incineration as methods of volume reduction, and of bituminization to immobilize the concentrated wastes. Earlier work had developed a process for incor­ porating low-level wastes i n concrete (84); however, this now is con­ sidered to be less satisfactory than bitumen. The demonstration phase of this program w i l l begin next year with the operation of a Waste Treat­ ment Center at C R N L which will concentrate and immobilize the lab­ oratories' wastes. Active Fuel Fabrication In the thorium fuel cycle the recycled uranium-233 inevitably is contaminated with uranium-232 and its decay products. The first of these, thorium-228, w i l l be contained i n any recycled thorium. Thallium-208 i n this decay chain emits a very-high-energy gamma ray and for this reason fabrication of recycle fuels i n the thorium fuel cycle will have to be done remotely i n heavily shielded cells. Conventional fuel fabri­ cation processes may not be the most economical under these conditions. Therefore some chemical engineering studies of alternatives to press­ ing and sintering of thoria powder have begun. One alternative is the sol gel process i n which a fuel consisting of several sizes of high-density microspheres of thorium dioxide is produced. Another is the extrusion of thoria gel i n the form of long pellets ready for sintering to high density. Overview In the past three decades nuclear chemical engineering in Canada has spanned a wide variety of activities throughout the nuclear power program. Most important have been the contributions to uranium m i l l ­ ing and refining operations and to the production of heavy water. The fields of Canadian preeminence are heavy-water process technology, reactor radiation field control, and organic coolant technology. A n early key contribution was immobilization of fission products in glass. Total employment of chemical engineers i n the nuclear industry in Canada is about 600 out of a total work force of about 30,000. The largest fraction is in operations, followed by design, research and devel­ opment, and manufacturing, i n that order. Chemical engineers often are surprised at the range of opportunities available to them i n the

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nuclear industry. And this range will expand in Canada as the waste immobilization and disposal programs grow and more so if fuel recycle is endorsed as part of our domestic energy resource strategy.

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Literature Cited 1. Eggleston, W. "Canada's Nuclear Story"; Clarke, Irwin and Co.: Toronto, 1965. 2. Lewis, W. B. Peaceful Uses At. Energy, Proc. U.N. Int. Conf. 2nd 1958, 1 p. 53. 3. Lewis, W. B. "Some Highlights of Experience and Engineering of HighPower Heavy-Water-Moderated Nuclear Reactors," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-797, 1959. 4. Haywood, L. R. "The CANDU Power Plant," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-5321, 1976. 5. McCredie, J.; Elston, Κ. E. "Program Review of Ontario Hydro's Nuclear Generation and Heavy Water Production Program," in Annual Interna­ tional Conference of the Canadian Nuclear Association, 18th, 1978, Vol. 3, p. 1. 6. Fortier, P. C. "Progress Report on Four CANDU Nuclear Generating Sta­ tions and Three Heavy Water Plants Outside Ontario," Annual Interna­ tional Conference of the Canadian Nuclear Association, 18th, 1978, Vol. 3, p. 57. 7. Lewis, W. B. "Low Cost Fueling Without Recycle," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report AECL-382, 1956. 8. Rae, H. K. "Fuel Reprocessing and Recycling for Natural Uranium Power Reactors," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-494, 1957. 9. Williams, R. M.; Little, H. W.; Gow, W. Α.; Berry, R. M. Peaceful Uses At. Energy, Proc. U.N. Int. Conf. 4th, 1972, 8, p. 37. 10. "Canadian Minerals Yearbook 1977," Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Government of Canada, Ottawa, 1979. 11. Burger, J. C.; Jardine, J. M . Peaceful Uses At. Energy, Proc. U.N. Int. Conf., 2nd, 1958, 4, p. 3. 12. Berry, R. M . "Eldorado's Port Hope Refinery-1969," Can. Inst. Min. Metall. Bull. 1969, 62(690), 1093. 13. Traumer, W. E. "Uranium Conversion at Eldorado Nuclear Limited," Atomic Industrial Forum/American Nuclear Society Conference, Miami, 1971. 14. Benedict, M . ; Pigford, T. H. "Nuclear Chemical Engineering"; McGraw-Hill: New York, 1957; p. 440. 15. Rae, H . K. Chem. in Can. 1955, 7 (10) 27. 16. Lumb, P. B. J. Br. Nucl. Energy Soc. 1976, 15, 35. 17. LeSurf, J. E. J. Br. Nucl. Energy Soc. 1977, 16, 53. 18. Hart, R. G.; Haywood, L. R.; Pon. G. A. Peaceful Uses At. Energy, U.N. Int. Conf. 4th, 1972, 5, p. 239. 19. Rae, H. K. "Chemical Engineering Research and Development for Fuel Reprocessing and Heavy Water Production," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report," AECL-3911, 1971, p. 47. 20. Watson, L. C.; Aikin, A. M.; Bancroft, A. R. "The Permanent Disposal of Highly Radioactive Wastes by Incorporation into Glass," I.A.E.A. Panel Proc. Ser. STI/PUB/18 1960, 375. 21. Boulton, J., Ed. "Management of Radioactive Fuel Wastes: The Canadian Disposal Program," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-6314, 1978. 22. Charlesworth, D. H.; Bourns, W. T.; Buckley, L. P. "The Canadian Devel­ opment Program for Conditioning CANDU Reactor Wastes for Disposal," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-6344, 1978.

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Critoph, E . Nucl. Power and Its Fuel Cycle, Proc. Int. Conf. 1977, 2, p. 55. Gow, W. Α.; Ritcey, G. M. Trans. Can. Inst. Min. Metall. 1969, 72, 361. Tremblay, R.; Bramwell, P. Trans. Can. Inst. Min. Metall. 1959, 62, 44. Vezina, J. Α.; Gow, W. A. "Some Design Aspects of the Pressure-Oxidation Acid Leaching of a Canadian Uranium Ore," Can. Mines Branch, Tech. Bull.-110. Ottawa, 1969. 27. Gow, W. Α.; McCreedy, Η. H.; Ritcey, G. M.; McNamara, V. M.; Harrison, V. F.; Lucas, Β. H. Recovery of Uranium, Proc. I.A.E.A. Symp. 1971, 195. 28. Williams, R. M. Can. Min. J. 1979, 100, 143. 29. Ritcey, G. M.; Joe, E. G.; Ashbrook, A. W. Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Metall. Petrol. Engrs. 1967, 238, 330. 30. Chalder, G. H.; Bright, N. F. H.; Patterson, D. L.; Watson, L. C. Peaceful Uses At. Energy, Proc. U.N. Int. Conf. 2nd, 1958, 6, 590. 31. Rae, Η. K. "A Review of Heavy Water Processes," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-2503, 1965. 32. Rae, Η. K. "Chemical Exchange Processes for Heavy Water," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-2555, 1966. 33. Rae, Η. K. In "Separation of Hydrogen Isotopes," ACS Symp. Ser. 1978, 68, 1. 34. Bebbington, W. P.; Thayer, V. R. Chem. Eng. Prog. 1959, 55 (9), 70. 35. Bancroft, A. R.; Rae, Η. K. Can. J. Chem. Eng. 1957, 35, 77. 36. Wartenweiler, M. Sulzer Tech. Rev. 1970, 52, 84. 37. Thayer, V. R. Canadian Patent 924080, 1973. 38. Blake, L. Nucl. Eng. Int. 1976, 21, (248), 65. 39. Davidson, G. D. In "Separation of Hydrogen Isotopes," ACS Symp. Serv. 1978, 68, 27. 40. Petrie, R. I. "Design Developments Bruce Heavy Water Plants," Annual International Conference of the Canadian Nuclear Association, 16th, 1976, Vol. 2, p. 27. 41. Sagert, N. H.; Quinn, M. J. "The Coalescence of H S and CO2 Bubbles in Water," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-5494, 1976. 42. Fulham, M. J.; Hulbert, V. G. Chem. Eng. Prog. 1975, 71 (6), 73. 43. Bancroft, A. R. "Heavy Water GS Process R&D Achievements," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-6215, 1978. 44. Miller, A. I. "Process Simulation of Heavy Water Plants—A Powerful Ana­ lytical Tool," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-6178, 1978. 45. Pauluis, G. J. C. Α.; Miller, A. I. Canadian Patent 1006337, 1977. 46. Wynn, N. P. In "Separation of Hydrogen Isotopes," ACS Symp. Ser. 1978, 68, 53. 47. Wynn, N. P.; Lockerby, W. E. "Heavy Water Processes Using AmineHydrogen Exchange,' Annual International Conference of the Canadian Nuclear Association, 18th, 1978. 48. Holtslander, W. J.; Lockerby, W. E. In "Separation of Hydrogen Isotopes," ACS Symp. Ser. 1978, 68, 40. 49. Bancroft, A. R.; Rae, Η. K. "Tecnica ed Economia della Produzione di Acqua Pesante," Comitato Nazionale Energia Nucleare, Rome, 1971, 47. 50. Butler, J. P.; Rolston, J. H.; Stevens, W. H. In "Separation of Hydrogen Isotopes," ACS Symp. Ser. 1978, 68, 93. 51. Rae, H. K.; Allison, G. M.; Bancroft, A. R.; Mackintosh, W. D. Palmer, J. F.; Winter, Ε. E . ; LeSurf, J. E.; Hatcher, S. R. Peaceful Uses At. Energy, Proc. U.N. Int. Conf. 3rd, 1964, 9, 318. 52. Balakrishnan, P. V. "Effect of Condenser Water Inleakage on Steam Generator Water Chemistry," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-5849, 1978. 53. Robertson, R. F. S. "Chalk River Experience in 'Crud' Deposition Prob­ lems," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-1328, 1961. 54. Hatcher, S. R. "The Chemical Engineer's Role in Nuclear Power Reactor Design, Development and Operation," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-3911, 1971, p. 41. Downloaded by UNIV OF ARIZONA on June 11, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: June 1, 1980 | doi: 10.1021/ba-1980-0190.ch018

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55. Hatcher, S. R.; Rae, H. K. Nucl. Sci. and Eng. 1961, 10, 316. 56. Rae, H . K. "The Behaviour of Uranium and Aluminum in the NRU Heavy Water System," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-1840, 1963. 57. Lister, D. H. Nucl. Sci. and Eng. 1975, 58, 239. 58. Lister, D. H. Water Chemistry of Nuclear Reactor Systems, Proc. Brit. Nucl. Energy Soc. Int. Conf. 1977, 207. 59. Burrill, K. A. Can. J. Chem. Eng. 1977, 55, 54. 60. Lister, D. H . "Predicting Radiation Fields Around Reactor Components," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-5522, 1976. 61. Moskal, E . J.; Bourns, W. T. "High-flow, High-temperature Magnetic Fil­ tration of the Primary Heat Transport Coolant of the CANDU Power Reactors," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-5760, 1977. 62. Montford, B. "Techniques to Reduce Radiation Fields," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-5523, 1976. 63. Pettit, P. J.; LeSurf, J. E.; Stewart, W. B. Strickert, R. J.; Vaughan, S. B. Materials Performance 1980, 19(1), 34. 64. Kee, K. J.; Woodhead, L. "Progress Review of Ontario Hydro's Nuclear Generation and Heavy Water Production Programs," Annual International Conference of the Canadian Nuclear Association, 17th, 1977, Vol. 2, p. 1. 65. Rae, H . K. "Heavy Water," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-3866, 1971. 66. Morrison, J. Α.; Thomas, M. H.; Watson, L.C.;Woodhead, L. W. Peaceful Uses At. Energy, Proc. U.N. Int. Conf.,3rd 1964, 12, 373. 67. LeSurf, J. E.; Bryant, P. E .C.;Tanner, M. C. Corrosion 1967, 23 (3), 57. 68. Allison, G. M.; LeSurf, J. E . Nuc. Tech. 1976, 29, 160. 69. Charlesworth, D. H . Chem. Eng. Progr. Symp. Ser. 1970, 66 (104), 21. 70. Burrill, K. A. Corrosion 1979, 35, (2), 84. 71. McNelly, M. J. Peaceful Uses At. Energy, Proc. U.N. Int. Conf. 2nd 1958, 9, 79. 72. Tomlinson, M.; Smee, J. L.; Winters, Ε. B.; Arneson, M. C. Nucl. Sci. Eng. 1966, 26, 547. 73. Bancroft, A. R.; Charlesworth, D. H.; Derksen, J. H. "Impurity Effects in the Fouling of Heat Transfer Surfaces by Organic Coolants," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-1913, 1965. 74. Smee, J. L.; Puttagunta, V. R.; Robertson, R. F. S.; Hatcher, S. R. "Organic Coolant Summary Report," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-4922, 1976. 75. Hatfield, G. W. "Reprocessing Nuclear Fuels," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-259, 1955. 76. Aikin, A. M. Chem. Eng. Prog. 1957, 53(2), 82. 77. Mathers, W. G . Winter, Ε. E . Can. J. Chem. Eng. 1959, 37, 99. 78. Aikin, A. M.; McKenzie, D. E. "The High Temperature Processing of Neutron­ -irradiatedUranium," in "Progress in Nuclear Energy Series III"; Pergamon Press: London, 1956; Vol. I, p. 316. 79. Banerjee, S.; Critoph, E.; Hart, R. G. Can. J. Chem. Eng. 1975, 53, 291. 80. White, J. M.; Lahaie, G. "Ultimate Fission Product Disposal—The Disposal of Curie Quantities of Fission Products in Siliceous Materials," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-391, 1955. 81. Merritt, W. F.; Parson, P. J. Health Physics, 1964, 10, 655. 82. Merritt, W. F. Nucl. Tech. 1977, 32, 88. 83. Tomlinson, M. In "Chemistry for Energy," ACS Symp. Ser. 1979, 90, 336. 84. White, J. M.; Lahaie, G. "Ultimate Fission Product Disposal II—The Dis­ posal of Moderately Radioactive Solutions in a Cement Mortar," Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-1085, 1960. ;

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1979.

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